The process of signal transduction in cells is responsible for a variety of biological functions including cell division and death, metabolism, immune cell activation, neurotransmission, and sensory perception to name but a few. Accordingly, derangements in normal signal transduction in cells can lead to a number of disease states such as diabetes, heart disease, autoimmunity, and cancer.
One well characterized signal transduction pathway is the MAP kinase pathway, which is responsible for transducing the signal from epidermal growth factor (EGF) to the promotion of cell proliferation in cells (see, FIG. 1 of PCT Publication No. WO2009/108637, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). EGF binds to a transmembrane receptor-linked tyrosine kinase, the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is activated by the binding of EGF. The binding of EGF to EGFR activates the tyrosine kinase activity of the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor. One consequence of this kinase activation is the autophosphorylation of EGFR on tyrosine residues. The phosphorylated tyrosine residues on the activated EGFR provide a docking site for the binding of SH2 domain containing adaptor proteins such as GRB2. In its function as an adaptor, GRB2 further binds to a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, SOS, by way of an SH3 domain on GRB2. The formation of the complex of EGFR-GRB2-SOS leads to SOS activation of a guanine nucleotide exchange factor that promotes the removal of GDP from Ras. Upon removal of GDP, Ras binds GTP and becomes activated.
Following activation, Ras binds to and activates the protein kinase activity of RAF kinase, a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase. What follows is the activation of a protein kinase cascade that leads to cell proliferation. In outline, RAF kinase then phosphorylates and activates MEK, another serine/threonine kinase. Activated MEK phosphorylates and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Among the targets for further phosphorylation by MAPK are 40S ribosomal protein S6 kinase (RSK). The phosphorylation of RSK by MAPK results in activation of RSK, which in turn phosphorylates ribosomal protein S6. Another known target of MAPK is the proto-oncogene, c-Myc, a gene important for cell proliferation, which is mutated in a variety of cancers. MAPK also phosphorylates and activates another protein kinase, MNK, which in turn phosphorylates the transcription factor, CREB. Indirectly, MAPK also regulates the transcription of the Fos gene, which encodes yet another transcription factor involved in cell proliferation. By altering the levels and activities of such transcription factors, MAPK transduces the original extracellular signal from EGF into altered transcription of genes that are important for cell cycle progression.
Given the central role that signal transduction pathways play in cell growth, it is not surprising that many cancers arise as a result of mutations and other alterations in signal transduction components that result in aberrant activation of cell proliferation pathways. For example, overexpression or hyperactivity of EGFR has been associated with a number of cancers, including glioblastoma multiforme, colon cancer, and lung cancer. This has prompted the development of anticancer therapeutics directed against EGFR, including gefitinib and erlotinib for lung cancer, and cetuximab for colon cancer.
Cetuximab is an example of a monoclonal antibody inhibitor, which binds to the extracellular ligand-binding domain of EGFR, thus preventing the binding of ligands which activate the EGFR tyrosine kinase. In contrast, gefitinib and erlotinib are small molecules which inhibit the intracellularly-located EGFR tyrosine kinase. In the absence of kinase activity, EGFR is unable to undergo autophosphorylation at tyrosine residues, which is a prerequisite for binding of downstream adaptor proteins, such as GRB2. By halting the signaling cascade in cells that rely on this pathway for growth, tumor proliferation and migration is diminished.
Additionally, other studies have shown that about 70% of human melanomas and a smaller fraction of other tumors have a point mutation (V599E) in the Raf gene which leads to persistent activation of the MAPK pathway (see, e.g., Davies et al., Nature, 417:949-954 (2002)). Such results suggest that mutations in particular signal transduction pathways may be characteristic of particular types of tumors and that such specific, altered signal transduction pathways may be a promising target for chemotherapeutic intervention.
Given that different cancer treatments, particularly cancer chemotherapy, may function either directly or indirectly by means of either blocking or activating cellular signal transduction pathways that are involved in cell proliferation or death, respectively, the activity of a given signal transduction pathway in a particular form of cancer may serve as a good indicator of the efficacy of various cancer treatments. Accordingly, in addition to fulfilling other needs, the present invention provides a method for evaluating the effectiveness of potential anticancer therapies for an individual patient. As such, the present invention provides methods for assisting a physician in selecting a suitable cancer therapy at the right dose and at the right time for every patient.